GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION
DETERMINERS
Definition of Determiners - Determiners are those words that are prefixed before nouns to determine their meaning. They can be divided into the following types:
1) Articles- a, an, the
2) Demonstratives- this, that, these, those
3) Possessives- my, your, our, his, her, its, their
4) Indefinite Adjectives- some, any, much, many, little, few, less
5) Others- all, each, every, both, neither, either, other, another, enough, most, several, one, two, etc.
1. ARTICLES (TYPE OF DETERMINER)
(1) The Definite Article (The)
"The" is called the definite article. It defines its noun as something specific (e.g., something previously mentioned or known, something unique, something being identified by the speaker).
This is the lake.
(This is a previously specified lake, i.e., one already known to the readers.)
(2) The Indefinite Article (A, An)
"A" and "an" are called the indefinite articles. They define their noun as something unspecific (e.g., something generic, something mentioned for the first time).
This is a lake.
(This is a previously unspecified lake.)
Important points to remember
i. The spelling of the word following the determiner is not important only the sound is important. Few
words given below start with vowel letters but do not have vowel sounds. So the determiner ‘a’ is attached to them. For example: A union, A one rupee coin, etc
ii. There are a few words that start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds. They are preceded by the
determiner ‘an’. For example: an honest man, an honour.
2. Demonstratives (This, that, These, Those)
Note that demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative pronouns. When they are used as determiners they are followed by the nouns they modify. Compare:
This is my camera. (Demonstrative used as a pronoun, subject of the verb is)
This camera is mine. (Demonstrative used as a determiner modifying the noun camera.)
The demonstrative determiners are used to talk about persons or things that have already been mentioned.
This and These refer to the things that are near and can be seen. ‘That‘ and ‘Those‘ are used to refer to the things that are at a distance but can be seen.
1. We lived in this house for four years.
2. I like this school.
This’ and ‘that’ are used for singular nouns and ‘these’ and ‘those’ for plural nouns.
1. Can you lift that box?
2. Would you like to buy those books?
3. Possessives (My, our, your, his, her, its, their)
The possessives are used to show possession.
Possessive determiners are different from possessive pronouns - mine, his, hers, yours, ours, theirs.
Possessive pronouns can stand alone and are not followed by nouns.
Possessive determiners, on the other hand, are followed by nouns.
Compare
This is my house. (my is a possessive determiner. It is followed by the noun house which it modifies)
Is that car yours? (yours is a possessive pronoun. It is not followed by a noun.)
4. Ordinals: first, second, next, last, etc.
The ordinals show what position something has in a series:
1. He is the first boy who has joined this school.
2. I shall meet him the next week.
3. He is the last man to help you.
5. Cardinals: one, two, three, hundred, etc.
Cardinals are ordinary numbers like one, two, three, etc. They show how many of something there are:
There were only ten boys in the class.
She lived for eighty years.
He has two daughters.
6. Quantifiers: much, some, several, a lot of, both, all, etc.
The quantifiers refer to the quantity of things or amount of something.
All children enjoyed the show.
They didn’t make much progress.
There was little water in the jug.
7. Distributives: each, every, either, neither.
Distributive determiners refer to each single member of a group.
1. Each is used when we talk about the members of a group individually and every when we make a general state-
ment. Both are followed by a singular countable noun:
.He met each guest.
2. The minister visited every flood-affected area.
Either is used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one of the two is involved.
1. Either of the two girls should come here.
2. Neither is the negative of either:
Neither member came to attend the meeting.
3. Either can also mean
People stood in either side (both sides) of the road.
4.Neither is followed by a singular noun.
NARRATION: DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH
General Rules:
We remove inverted commas in Indirect speech.
We remove comma(,) used after the Reporting Verb.
No change in the Tense of Reporting Verb. If there is an object after Reporting Verb, change ‘said to’ into ‘told’.
Tenses, Pronouns and words denoting nearness of time or position are changed.
Rule-1 : If Reporting Verb is in Present or Future Tense, Tense of Reported Speech is not changed-
He says, “Hari is not well.”
He says that Hari is not well.
Rule-2 : If Reporting Verb is in Past Tense, Tense of Reported Speech is changed in corresponding past tense.
Tense of the Verb in Direct speech Tense of the Verb in Indirect speech
V1/V1 + (s/es)
Does/do + not + V1
Is/are/am + V1 (ing)
Has/have + V3
Has/have + been + V1 (ing)
V2
Did + not + V1
Was/were + V1(ing)
Will/shall/can/may +V1
Must/would/should/ought(to)/dare(to) +V1
V2
Did not + V1
Was/were + V1 (ing)
Had + V3
Had + been + V1 (ing)
Had + V3
Had + not + V3
Had + been + V1(ing)
Would/should/could/might + V1
Must/would/should/ought(to)/dare(to) +V1
*IF the sentence of Reporting speech is Universal Truth, Habitual actions, or Historical fact or any Proverb, the Tense of Reported Speech does not change though the Reporting Verb may be in the Past Tense.
My father said, “The Sun rises in the east.”
My father said that the sun rises in the east.
RULES FOR CHANGING PRONOUNS
RULES FOR CHANGING Adverbs of time and place
Ago => before Now => then Tonight => that night
Come => go This =>that Today => That day
Here => there These => those Yet => Still
Tomorrow => the next day / the following day
Yesterday => the previous day / the day before
Yesterday morning => the previous morning / the morning before
RULES OF CHANGING QUESTIONS (Interrogative Sentences)
-Reporting Verb ‘said to’ is changed to ‘asked’ or ‘enquired’ and ‘say to’ into ‘ask’.
‘that’ conjunction is not used.
-Interrogative Sentences is changed into Assertive Sentence. Sign of Interrogation (?) is removed and full Stop (.) is
used in its place .
He said to me, “Where is she?”
He asked me where she was.
-Pronoun, Verb and other words of Reported Speech are changed according to the rules of the Assertive Sentence.
If there is an auxiliary verb (is, am, are, was, were, do, does, did, shall, will, has, have, had, can/may) in the beginning of the Reported Speech, connective word ‘if’ or ‘whether’ is used.
Hari said to me, “Are you reading a book?”
Hari asked me if I was reading a book.
TENSES
Past Present Future
Simple action that ended in the past.
An action that is habitual or repeated.
A plan for an action in the future
Formula Painted Paints/Paint Will paint.
Person Nominative or Subjective form
Objective Form Reflexive form Possessive form
First Person
I We Me Us Myself Ourselves my, mine
our, ours
Second Person
You Yourself/yourselves Your, yours
Third Person
He She It They Him He It Them
Himself Herself Itself Themselves
His Her, hers Its Their, theirs
Word clue He painted yesterday She paints every weekend. She will paint tomorrow.
CONTINUOUS
(be)+ (verb) +ing.
An action that was happening(past continuous) when another action finished (simple past).
An action is in the process of happening now.
An action that will happen in the future for a length of time.
Will be painting
Formula Was/were painting Am/are/is painting
Word clue I was painting when I saw the accident.
She is painting now. They will be painting when you arrive tomorrow.
PERFECT
(have)+ (verb)3
An action that finished before another action or time inthe past.
An action that happened at an unsaid time in the past.
An action that will finish before another action or time in the future.
Formula Had painted. Have/haspainted Will have painted
Word clue We had painted the house before the rain started.
She has painted many portraits.
He will have painted the bedroom before his daughter comes home.
PERFECT CONTINUOUS
(have)+been +ing(verb)+ing
An action that happened over time in the past before another action.
An action that happens over time, starting in the past and continuing into the present.
An action that happens over time in the future before another action.
Formula Had been painting Have/has been painting Will have been painting
Word clue She had been painting for a while
when she started classes.
I have been painting landscapes since I started school.
We will have been painting for several hours before we can see how it looks.
SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
1. If the subject is singular the verb must be singular too.
Eg 1: She writes neatly. Eg 2 : I sing in the evening.
2. If the subject is plural the verb must be plural
Eg : They play with agility.
3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns then use a plural verb.
Eg : The director and actors work hard to put up a good show.
4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with a the subject.
Eg : The management is strict and is thinking of making some changes in the rulebook.
5. When a phrase comes between the subject and verb, the verb still agrees with the subject not with the noun
or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentences.
Eg : The student with all the copies is allowed to enter the class.
6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ use a singular verb.
Eg : The manager or the assistant manager approves the bill.
7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and plural noun joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ the verb should
agree with the subject that is closest to the verb.
Eg : The trainer or the officers write the report.
The officers or the trainer writes the report.
8. The following words and phrases require singular verb: each, everyone, each one, either, neither,
everybody, anyone, anybody, no body, somebody, someone, no one.
Eg : Each of the runners was given the kit.
Neither of you was exempted.
9. Uncountable nouns take a singular verb.
Eg : The information was disseminated by the researchers.
The research is essential for upgradation.
10. Some countable nouns such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds, contents and valuable only
have plural form and take plural verb.
Eg : The goods in godown are expensive.
The earnings need to be mentioned in the form.
11. In sentences beginning with there the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
Eg : There are many factors affecting the rise in temperature.
There is little to do in this field.
12. Collective nouns are considered singular and take singular verb. example group, committee, family and
class but if the focus is on individuals in the group then the verb will be plural. This is rare.
Eg : The group does the work everyday.
The team leaves at five in the morning.
MODAL AUXILIARIES
Modal are those auxiliary or helping verbs that are used to express the mode or manner of the actions indicated by
the main verbs. They express modes such as certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability. Here
are some characteristics of modal verbs:
1. They never change their form. You can't add "s", "ed", "ing"...
2. They are always followed by an infinitive without "to" (e. i. the bare infinitive.)
Here is a list of modals with examples:
Modal Verb Expressing Example
1. Must Strong obligation You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
Logical conclusion / Certainty He must be very tired. He's been working all day long.
2. Must not Prohibition You must not smoke in the hospital.
3. Can Ability I can swim.
Permission Can I use your phone please?
Possibility Smoking can cause cancer.
4. Could Ability in the past When I was young, I could run fast.
Polite permission/request Excuse me, could I just say something?
Possibility Accident could be avoided.
5. May Permission May I use your phone please?
Blessings May God bless you with a long life!
Possibility, Probability There are heavy clouds in the sky. It may rain today!
6. Might Guessing He might be sleeping at this time.
Lesser possibility, probability I might go on a holiday to Australia next year.
7. Need not Lack of necessity/absence I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of tomatoes in
of obligation the fridge.
8. Should/ Obligation I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.
ought to Advice You should / ought to revise your lessons
Logical conclusion He should / ought to be very tired. He's been working all day long.
10. Will Order You will do it just now.
Threat You will be punished.
Determination They/we will work hard to win the match.
11. Would Habitual action I would listen to music all day long.
Willingness I would work hard to come up to your expectations.
