Indian English literature (IEL), also referred to as Indian Writing in English (IWE), is the body of work by writers in India who write in the English language but whose native or co-native language could be one of the numerous languages of India.
It is frequently referred to as Indo-Anglian literature.
Its early history began with the works of Henry Louis Vivian Derozio and Michael Madhusudan Dutt followed by Rabindranath Tagore and Sri Aurobindo R.K. Narayan , Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao contributed to the growth and popularity of Indian English fiction in the 1930s. It is also associated, in some cases, with the works of members of the Indian Diaspora who subsequently compose works in English.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (18 April 1809 – 26 December 1831) was an Indian poet and assistant headmaster of Hindu College, Kolkata. He was a radical thinker of his time and one of the first Indian educators to disseminate Western learning and science among the young men of Bengal.
Historical Context:
- Indian English literature emerged during British colonial rule when English was the language of administration and education.
- Early Indian writers in English were influenced by both Western literary traditions and Indian cultural contexts.
Major Themes:
- Identity and Cultural Hybridity: Writers often explore the complexities of cultural identity, the clash of traditions, and the negotiation between Indian and Western influences.
- Postcolonialism: The aftermath of colonial rule, the struggles for independence, and the impact of colonization are common themes.
- Social Issues: Many works address societal problems such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, poverty, and political turmoil.
- Diaspora: Indian writers in the diaspora often explore themes of displacement, longing, and the challenges of assimilation in foreign cultures.
Prominent Writers and Their Works:
- Rabindranath Tagore: A Nobel laureate, Tagore's works like "Gitanjali" (Song Offerings) express spiritual and universal themes.
- R.K. Narayan: Known for his "Malgudi" series, Narayan's works depict life in the fictional town of Malgudi.
- Mulk Raj Anand: His novels like "Untouchable" address social issues and caste discrimination.
- Kamala Markandaya: Known for "Nectar in a Sieve," which focuses on rural life and the challenges faced by peasants.
- Salman Rushdie: His novel "Midnight's Children" is a seminal work that explores the cultural and political history of India.
- Arundhati Roy: "The God of Small Things" tackles caste, class, and family relationships against the backdrop of Kerala.
- Jhumpa Lahiri: An acclaimed diasporic writer, Lahiri's "Interpreter of Maladies" and "The Namesake" explore the experiences of Indian immigrants.
Literary Movements:
- Progressive Writers' Movement: A literary movement focusing on social issues and advocating for progressive change.
- Indian Literature in English: Emerging as a distinct genre, it showcases the unique experiences of Indian writers using English as their medium.
Language and Style:
- Indian English literature often displays a unique blend of Indian cultural elements and English language conventions.
- Writers use vernacular phrases, idioms, and cultural references to create a distinct narrative voice.
Recognition and Impact:
- Indian English literature has gained global recognition and has been awarded prestigious literary prizes, including the Booker Prize.
Current Trends:
- Contemporary Indian English literature continues to explore diverse themes, reflecting the changing landscape of India and the world.
The first book written by an Indian in English was The Travels of Dean Mahomet, a travel narrative by Sake Dean Mahomed, published in England in 1794.
Gandhi's Indian Home Rule or Hind Swaraj (1910) was written in an indigenised variety of the English language and challenged successfully 'the hegemony of Standard English' (Auddy, 169) even before R. K. Narayan, M. R. Anand and Raja Rao.
On Nature
1. Sarojini Naidu
2. K. N. Daruwalla
3. Toru Dutt
Feminism -
1. Eunice De Soza
2.and Kamala Das
Drama
1. Girish Karnad
2. Mahesh Datlani
3. Vijay Tandulkar
4. Abhishek Majumdar
Fiction
1. Mulk Raj Anand
2. R. K. Narayan
3. Arundhati Roy
4. Raja Rao
1950s -Leading Writers
Anita Desai -Cry, the peacock and Fire on the Mountain
Khushwant Singh - Train to Pakistan
Arun Joshi -The Apprentice
1980s Leading Writers
1.Salman Rushdie- Midnight Children(magic realism)
2.Rohinton Mistry- A Fine Balance
1999-2000- Leading Writers
1. Amitav Ghosh
2. Vikram Seth
3. Arundhati Roy- The God of small things
Jayanta Mahapatra is a prominent Indian poet known for his evocative and poignant poetry.
Background: Jayanta Mahapatra was born on October 22, 1928, in Cuttack, Odisha, India. He is the first Indian poet to win a Sahitya Akademi award for English poetry. He is the author of poems such as "Indian Summer" and Hunger", which are regarded as classics in modern Indian English literature. He was awarded a Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian honour in India in 2009. He returned the award in 2015 to protest against rising intolerance in India.
Language and Style: He writes primarily in English and is known for his distinct poetic style characterized by vivid imagery, introspection, and a keen observation of human life and nature.
First Collection: Mahapatra gained recognition with his debut poetry collection titled "Close the Sky, Ten by Ten" published in 1971. This collection established him as a significant voice in Indian English poetry.
Themes: His poetry often explores themes of mortality, human suffering, spirituality, cultural identity, and the impact of modernization on traditional values.
Awards: Jayanta Mahapatra has received numerous accolades for his literary contributions, including the Sahitya Akademi Award, which he won for his collection "Relationship" in 1981. He was also honored with the Padma Shri, one of India's highest civilian awards, in 2009.
Influences: His poetry is influenced by both Western and Indian literary traditions, blending elements of both to create a unique poetic voice.
Social Concerns: Mahapatra's poetry often reflects his concern for social issues, including poverty, inequality, and the human condition in a changing world.
Imagery: His poetry is celebrated for its rich and evocative imagery that creates a vivid and immersive experience for readers.
Indian Poets Trio
Mahapatra was part of a trio of poets who laid the foundations of Indian English Poetry, which included A. K. Ramanujan and R. Parthasarathy .He differed from others in not being a product of Bombay school of poets. Over time, he has managed to carve a quiet, tranquil poetic voice of his own, different from those of his contemporaries.
Collections: Apart from his debut collection, some of his other notable works include "A Rain of Rites" (1976), "The False Start" (1998), "Random Descent" (2007), and "From the Cradle of Solitude" (2012).
Interview
- “The Hindu: Jayanta Mahapatra - A doyen of Indian-English poetry”
Poetry readings
- Outside India
- University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1976
- University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, 1976
- University of the South, Sewanee, 1976
- East West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1976
- Adelaide Festival of Arts, Adelaide, 1978
- P.E.N. Centre, Sydney, 1978
- Australian National University, Canberra, 1978
- International Poets Conference, Tokyo, 1980
- Asian Poets Conference, Tokyo, 1984
Books by Jayanta Mahapatra
- Poetry
- 1971: Close the Sky Ten by Ten, Calcutta: Dialogue Publications
- 1971: Svayamvara and Other Poems, Calcutta:
- 1976: A Father's Hours, Delhi: United Writers
- 1976: A Rain of Rites, Georgia: University of Georgia Press
- 1979: Waiting, Pune : Samkaleen Prakashan
- 1980: The False Start, Bombay: Clearing House
- 1980: Relationship, New York: Greenfield Review Press
- 2017: Collected Poems, Mumbai: Paperwall Publishing
Prose
- 1997: The Green Gardener, short stories, Hyderabad: Orient Longman
- 2006: Door of Paper: Essay and Memoirs, New Delhi: Authorspress
- 2011: Bhor Moitra Kanaphula (Odia), Bhubaneswar : Paschima Publications
Poetry in Odia
- 1993: Bali (The Victim), Cutack: Vidyapuri
- 1995: Kahibe Gotiye Katha (I'll Tell A Story), Arya Prakashan
- 1997: Baya Raja (The Mad Emperor), Cuttack: Vidyapuri
- 2004: Tikie Chhayee (A Little Shadow), Cuttack : Vidyapuri
- 2006: Chali (Walking), Cuttack: Vidyapuri
- 2008: Jadiba Gapatie (Even If It's A Story), Cuttack: Friends Publishers
- 2011: Smruti Pari Kichhiti (A Small Memory), Cuttack: Bijayini
Translations into English
- 1973: Countermeasures: Poems, Calcutta : Dialogue
- 1976: Wings of the Past: Poems, Calcutta : Rajasree
- 1981: Song of Kubja and Other Poems, New Delhi : Samkaleen
- 1994: I Can, But Why Should I Go: Poems, New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi
- 1996: Verticals of Life: Poems, New Delhi : Sahitya Akademi
- 1998: Tapaswini: a Poem, Bhubaneswar : Odisha Sahitya Akademi
- 2001: Discovery and other Poems, Kolkata : Writers Workshop
- 2003: A Time of Rising (Poems), New Delhi : Har-Anand Publishers
"Close the Sky, Ten by Ten" (1971): This debut collection established Mahapatra as a notable voice in Indian English poetry. The poems in this collection explore various themes, including love, solitude, and the complexities of human emotions.
"A Rain of Rites" (1976): This collection delves into themes of rituals, tradition, and the modern world's influence on cultural practices. Mahapatra's reflective and meditative style is prominent in these poems.
"Relationship" (1980): This collection earned Mahapatra the prestigious Sahitya Akademi Award in 1981. The poems in "Relationship" examine the intricacies of human connections, emotions, and the fragility of life. It is a modern epic. It is embodiment of culture particularly history, legends of Orissa.
"Temple" (1989): This collection is known for its exploration of spirituality, the divine, and the connections between the human and the transcendent. The poems are often introspective and offer a contemplative perspective on existence.
"The False Start" (1998): In this collection, Mahapatra continues his exploration of human existence, societal changes, and the impact of time. The poems are characterized by their vivid imagery and a deep sense of introspection.
"Random Descent" (2007): This collection addresses various themes, including the passage of time, memory, and the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world. The poems reflect on the past, present, and future.
"From the Cradle of Solitude" (2012): Mahapatra's later work reflects a contemplative and reflective tone, as he examines the essence of solitude, mortality, and the human experience. These poems evoke a sense of introspection and emotional depth.
"The Dispossessed Nest" is a collection of poems written by Indian poet Jayanta Mahapatra. This collection, published in 2002, is another example of his evocative and introspective poetry that delves into themes of human emotions, life's complexities, and the relationship between humans and nature. It has reflection of Punjab Turmoil and Bhopal Tragedy.
K. N. Daruwalla said- "Mahapatra's poetry are restrained and balanced. He does not indulge verbal excess nor does his voice turn shrill".
Sri Aurobindo was a prominent Indian philosopher, poet, nationalist, and spiritual leader who made significant contributions to various fields. Part of society -Lotus and Dagger formed to free India.
Early Life and Education: Sri Aurobindo Ghose was born on August 15, 1872, in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India. He was a brilliant student and excelled in academics.
Education Abroad: He went to England (14 yrs) to pursue higher education, where he studied at King's College, Cambridge. He was a gifted student and had mastered several European languages, including Greek and Latin.
Then, he came out successful in the Indian Civil Service Examination and later became involved in the Indian nationalist movement.
Nationalist Activities: Upon returning to India, Sri Aurobindo became a prominent leader in the Indian Nationalist movement. He advocated for complete independence from British rule and was associated with the Extremist faction within the Indian National Congress.
Bande Mataram: Sri Aurobindo played a pivotal role in editing and writing for the nationalist newspaper "Bande Mataram," which became a rallying point for India's struggle for freedom.
Arrest and Imprisonment: In 1908, he was arrested in connection with the Alipore Bomb Case but was later acquitted due to lack of evidence. During his one-year imprisonment, he underwent a spiritual transformation.
Spiritual Evolution: After his release from prison, Sri Aurobindo withdrew from active politics and moved to Pondicherry in 1910. There, he focused on spiritual practices and the pursuit of higher consciousness.
Integral Yoga and Philosophy: Sri Aurobindo developed the concept of "Integral Yoga," which aimed to integrate all aspects of life—physical, mental, and spiritual—toward the realization of the divine. He emphasized the evolution of consciousness and the transformation of human nature.
Auroville: Sri Aurobindo's teachings and vision inspired the creation of Auroville, an experimental township near Pondicherry, aimed at achieving human unity and spiritual consciousness.
Literary Works: Sri Aurobindo was a prolific writer. Some of his notable works include "The Life Divine," "Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol," "Essays on the Gita," and "The Synthesis of Yoga." His writings explore spirituality, philosophy, and the evolution of consciousness.
The sequence of his thoughts has since come out in several books such as The Life Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, Essays on the Gita, The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity. The Foundation of Indian Culture, The Future Poetry, The Upanishads, etc.
His greatest spiritual work in poetry is the great epic, Savitri, which has 23,813 lines of verse. He was crammed a whole universe into a single book. To Sri Aurobindo, poetry is the Mantra of the Real. It is the breath of Greater Life.
The early poems of Sri Aurobindo starting with the Songs of Myrtilla are highly lyrical with philosophical and mystical overtones and full of promise of his future poetry. He never loses sight of the spiritual reality behind the surface phenomenon.
The Tiger and the Deer, one of the early poems in free quantitative verse, is remarkable for bringing before our eyes the cruel terrifying beauty of the forest crouching and slouching and leaping and slaying the delicate beauty of the forest. The movement described with the apt words and pilferages shows the poet’s command of the language.
The sonnet, A Dream of Surreal Science is witty, sardonic and prophetic. It shows how Sri Aurobindo was conversant with all the developments in the fields of psychology, the exploration into the unconscious by the scientist of modern times.
The Rishi, an early poem of Sri Aurobindo, is a philosophical poem embodying a spiritual philosophy, the creation of a revelatory and intuitive mind and its illumined experience.
Thought the Paraclete and Rose of God and The Bird of Fire written on same day 31st December 1934 are visions cast in words of which demand a high quality and intensity of feeling and visionary capacity quite uncommon with the average reader.
Then we come to Sri Aurobindo’s finest flower of poetic creation, the monumental epic, the symphony of a superman, Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol. The uniqueness of the achievement lies in the fact that Sri Aurobindo has closed a gulf that has yawned in the human psyche for many, many centuries. Shri Aurobindo himself has written about the symbolic significance of Savitri. The tale of “Satyavan and Savitri” is recited in the Mahabharata as the story of conjugal love overcoming death.
His first blank verse play, Perseus the Deliverer belongs to this early period. Here he dramatizes the ancient Greek legend of Persues. The heroic myth has been relocated in the series of romances.
Rodogune, Eric and Vasavadatta, The Vizier of Bassora and Eric are the plays in which the dramatist allows each character maintain his distinctive personality.
Rodogune is an instance of romantic tragedy.
Eric, the first of the two Pondicherry plays, is based on ancient Scandinavia and describes the Viking culture of the Nordic race.
Vasavadatta is woven round the love story of Prince Udayan and Princess Vasavadatta. It is based on the Sanskrit classic, Kathasaritsagara.
Mulk Raj Anand
As a novelist, short story writer and art critic in English, Mulk Raj Anand is a great Indian writer, known as Zola or Balzac of India, who paints a realistic and sympathetic picture of the poor in his country. Along with Raja Rao and RK Narayan, he is considered the ‘founding father’ of Indian English novels.
Mulk Raj Anand was born in Peshawar, as the son of Lal Chand, a coppersmith and soldier. Anand initially rebelled against his father's allegiance to the British authorities.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Anand separated his time in literary London and Gandhi's India. He joined the freedom struggle, but also fought with the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War.
After the war, Anand returned to India permanently, making Bombay his hometown and center of activity. In 1946 he founded the art magazine, Marg.
Anand concentrated on art history books in the early 1930s. Until the advent of the novel Untouchable (1935) and Coolie (1936), the story of a 15-year-old child laborer dying of tuberculosis, Anand gained widespread recognition.
During World War II, he worked as a broadcaster and scriptwriter for the BBC's film division in London. Among his friends was George Orwell.
His first writings were born in response to the suicide drama of an aunt who was expelled for eating with a Muslim woman. His unrequited love for a married Muslim girl inspired some of his poems.
Education: Anand studied in both India and England. He attended Khalsa College in Amritsar and later pursued higher education in London, where he was exposed to various literary and social influences.
Literary Style: Anand's writing style is characterized by realism and a deep social conscience. He often addressed issues related to social inequality, poverty, and the plight of the marginalized in his works.
Themes: His works often dealt with themes such as caste discrimination, poverty, exploitation, and the human condition. He was known for highlighting the struggles of the underprivileged and advocating for social justice.
He also became the director of Kutub Publishers. From 1948 to 1966, Anand taught at the Indian University. In the 1960s, he was Professor of Literature and Fine Arts at Punjab University and the Visiting Professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies in Simila (1967-68). From 1965 to 1970, Anand was the Chairman of Fine Arts at the Lalit Kala Academy (National Academy of Arts). In 1970, he was appointed president of the Lokayata Trust for building a community and cultural center in the village of Hauz Khas in New Delhi. Anand started writing at a young age.
Although Punjabi and Hindustani were the mother tongues of Anand, he wrote in English because English language publishers did not reject him because of the themes of his books.
His career as a writer began in England with the publication of short notes on the book in T.S. Elliot's magazine, Criterion. His acquaintances from this time onward included writers such as EM Forster, Herbert Read, Henry Miller and George Orwell, who tried to give Anand a full-time post on the BBC. The most important influence upon Anand was Gandhi, who shaped his social conscience.
Bakha, an unclean outcast, who suffered several insults during his day, describes a day in the life of the untouchable. Bakha is an 18-year-old, proud ‘strong and capable’, child of modern India, who has begun to think of himself as the best of his fellow outcasts. That 'touch' occurs in the morning and later casts a shadow over the rest of the day. Due to his low birth rate, Bakha was destined to work as a latrine sweeper. Strong criticism of the Indian caste system has suggested that the British colonial domination in India has in fact exacerbated the plight of the expatriates like Bakha. After the rejection of 19 times, Anand's novel was published in England with an introduction of E.M. Forster:
“Untouchables can only be written by an Indian and by an Indian who observed from the outside. No European, though sympathetic, could create the character of Bakha, because he did not know enough about his suffering. And no untouchable could write a book, because he was involved in anger and self-pity”.
Two Leaves and a Bud (1937), Anand continued his research on Indian society. The story was told of a poor Punjabi farmer. She was brutally exploited in a tree plantation and a British officer tried to rape her daughter. The socially conscious work shares a lot with proletarian novels published in Britain and the United States in the 1930s.
The famous trilogy of Anand, [The Village (1939), Across the Black Waters (1940), and The Sword and the Sickle (1942)], was a strong protest against social injustice. The story follows Lal Singh's life through his experiences in the First World War, from the teenage rebellion to his return home and his revolutionary activities. The social and political analysis of his actions in the early novels of Anand clearly increased from his involvement with the left in England.
Anand's next and most impressive work is The Private Life of an Indian Prince (1953). During this time Ananda focused more on the humanistic mentality and personal struggle than on class conflict. The story originates from the betrayal of a hill woman with whom the author was romantically involved when he married his first wife, actress Kathleen Van Gelder. Anand met Gelder in London; they were married in 1939.
After the divorce in 1948, Anand married Shirin Bajibdar, a prominent dancer. Since the 1950s, Anand has been working non-stop on a seven-volume autobiography, Seven Ages of Man. From the project appeared Seven Summers (1951), Morning Face (1968), Confessions of a Lover (1976) and The Bubble (1984). Ananda also published books on a variety of subjects in India, such as Marx and Angels, Tagore, Nehru, Aesop’s Fable, and some notable Indian ivories. Mulk Raj Anand died on September 28, 2004 in Pune.
Chandra Chattopadhyay
(1838–1894)
wrote Rajmohan's Wife and published it in 1864, making it the first Indian novel written in English.
Lal Behari Dey's Govinda Samanta or the History of a Bengali Raiyat was published in 1874 and the same author's Folk Tales of Bengal:
Life's Secret was published in 1912. Bianca, or The Young Spanish Maiden (1878) by Toru Dutt was the first novel written by an Indian woman.
Both Toru Dutt and Krupabai Satthianandhan , two promising Indian English writers of the nineteenth century died untimely in their early twenties and thirties respectively.
Satthianadhan's autobiographical novel Saguna: A Story of Native Christian Life was published serially in The Madras Christian College Magazine from 1887 to 1888. The only other novel by Satthianandhan is Kamala: The Story of a Hindu Life (1894).
Raja Rao (1908–2006)
- Indian-American writer of English-language novels and short stories, whose works are deeply rooted in metaphysics. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality.This includes the first principles of: being or existence, identity, change, space and time ,cause and effect, necessity, actuality and possibility.
Major Works:
"Kanthapura" (1938):
- One of Raja Rao's most famous novels.
- Depicts the impact of Gandhi's teachings and the struggle for Indian independence in a fictional village named Kanthapura.
- Written in a unique style that incorporates Indian oral traditions.
Narrative Style: The novel is narrated by an old woman from the village of Kanthapura, giving it a distinct narrative voice and a strong sense of authenticity and oral tradition.
Setting: The story is set in the fictional village of Kanthapura in South India during the time of the Indian freedom movement against British colonial rule.
Gandhian Influence: The novel heavily reflects Mahatma Gandhi's principles of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. The villagers of Kanthapura are inspired by Gandhi's ideas and engage in various forms of protest against British oppression.
Characters: The characters in the novel represent a cross-section of Indian society. Moorthy, a young man influenced by Gandhi's philosophy, becomes a key figure in the village's struggle for independence.
Caste and Religion: The novel explores the dynamics of caste and religion within the Indian society of that time. The struggle for independence also becomes a means of breaking down these barriers.
Colonial Oppression: The novel portrays the injustices and atrocities committed by the British colonial rulers, which fuel the villagers' determination to fight for their rights and freedom.
Symbolism: The river and the temple are symbolic elements in the story. The river represents the flow of life and change, while the temple symbolizes tradition and spirituality.
Language: Raja Rao employs a mix of English and Indian languages to capture the essence of the Indian village life and culture, creating a unique linguistic texture.
Social Transformation: The story shows the transformation of Kanthapura from a passive village into a center of resistance and activism, highlighting the power of collective action and unity.
"The Serpent and the Rope" (1960):
- A semi-autobiographical novel that explores the complexities of Indian philosophy, Western thought, and the search for self-realization.
- The title symbolizes the tension between the material world and spiritual enlightenment. Received Sahitya Academy Award for this work and Padma Bhushan Award for his contributions.
"The Cat and Shakespeare" (1965):
- A novel that delves into the psyche of the protagonist as he grapples with questions of existence and meaning. Explores the conflict between tradition and modernity.
Themes and Philosophical Underpinnings:
- Raja Rao's works often explore themes related to spirituality, self-discovery, and the quest for a higher truth.
- He drew heavily from Indian philosophy, particularly Advaita Vedanta, to explore the nature of reality and the self.
Narrative Techniques:
- Rao's narrative style is often characterized by its lyrical and poetic quality.
- He employs techniques like stream of consciousness and interior monologue to delve into the minds of his characters was an Indian-American writer of English-language novels and short stories, whose works are deeply rooted in metaphysics.
.Kisari Mohan Ganguli translated the Mahabharata into English, the only time the epic has ever been translated in its entirety into a European language.
R. K. Narayan (1906–2001) contributed over many decades and continued to write till his death.
He was discovered by Graham Green in the sense that the latter helped him find a publisher in England. Greene and Narayan remained close friends till the end.
Narayan created the fictitious town of Malgudi where he set his novels.
Some criticise Narayan for the parochial, detached and closed world that he created in the face of the changing conditions in India at the times in which the stories are set.
Others, such as Greene, however, feel that through Malgudi they could vividly understand the Indian experience. Narayan's evocation of small-town life and its experiences through the eyes of the endearing child protagonist Swaminathan in Swami and Friends is a good sample of his writing style.
Simultaneous with Narayan's pastoral idylls, a very different writer, Mulk Raj Anand (1905–2004), was similarly gaining recognition for his writing set in rural India, but his stories were harsher, and engaged, sometimes brutally, with divisions of caste, class and religion.
According to writer Lakshmi Holmstrom , "The writers of the 1930s were fortunate because after many years of use, English had become an Indian language used widely and at different levels of society, and therefore they could experiment more boldly and from a more secure position.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) wrote in Bengali and English and was responsible for the translations of his own work into English.
Dhan Gopal Mukherji (1890–1936) was the first Indian author to win a literary award in the United States.
Nirad C. Chaudhuri (1897–1999), a writer of non-fiction, is best known for his The Autobiography of an unknown Indian (1951), in which he relates his life experiences and influences.
P. Lal (1929–2010), a poet, translator, publisher and essayist, founded a press in the 1950s for Indian English writing, Writers Workshop..
Ram Nath Kak (1917–1993), a Kashmiri veterinarian , wrote his autobiography Autumn Leaves, which is one of the most vivid portraits of life in 20th century Kashmir and has become a sort of a classic.
